Introduction

Relevance of the Theme

Modern and Contemporary Philosophy is an essential pillar for understanding the foundations of Western thought and the constitution of contemporary values. Developments in science, politics, ethics, and aesthetics that occurred from the 17th century onwards are largely the result of the philosophical revolutions of that period. The clarification of rationalism, empiricism, and criticism, as well as the answers to major existential and social questions, are fundamental for understanding the principles that govern the current world. Furthermore, this study facilitates the understanding of the roots of many current debates, such as the relationship between reason and emotion, the structure of democratic governments, and conceptions of social justice and law. Modern and Contemporary Philosophy, therefore, provides the conceptual tools necessary for students to become critical thinkers and active citizens in an increasingly complex society.

Contextualization

Placing Modern and Contemporary Philosophy in the educational panorama, this theme promotes a bridge between the classical discussions of ancient and medieval philosophy and the emerging issues in the following centuries, up to the present day. This transition is marked by a systematic questioning of pre-established structures and an increasing valorization of the individual. In the High School curriculum, addressing this philosophical period allows students to understand the transformations in thinking and societal organization over time and recognize the specific contributions of thinkers who shaped the fabric of modernity and the present. The inclusion of this content in the 2nd year of High School is strategic, as it prepares students for more complex and refined debates that will take place in the following year, as well as providing a solid foundation for interdisciplinary work with other areas of knowledge, such as history, literature, and social sciences.

Theory

Examples and Cases

An emblematic case to illustrate the profound cultural and intellectual transformation of Modern Philosophy is the scientific revolution of the 17th century, with figures such as Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton. They questioned the Aristotelian-Ptolemaic geocentrism and developed new theories based on rationalism and empiricism, respectively. These changes in the understanding of the cosmos exemplify how modern philosophy began a rupture with medieval tradition and promoted a new valorization of experience and reason as sources of knowledge. In Contemporary Philosophy, existentialism stands out. The work of Jean-Paul Sartre, for example, 'Being and Nothingness,' illustrates the search for meaning in a world where absolute truths are questioned.

Components

Rationalism

Rationalism is a philosophical school of thought that emerged during Modern Philosophy, emphasizing reason as the primary source of knowledge. Descartes, one of its main exponents, with the statement 'I think, therefore I am,' places doubt and thought as foundations for knowledge. Rationalism argues that the mind possesses innate ideas and that reason is capable of reaching a priori truths, independent of sensory experience. This component is essential for understanding how knowledge was restructured in modernity, opposing empiricism that values sensory experience as the primary source of knowledge.

Empiricism

Empiricism is a philosophical current that argues that knowledge originates from sensory experience. Philosophers like John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume argue that the mind at birth is a 'tabula rasa,' and that all knowledge derives from impressions received by the senses. Locke explored the concept of 'substance,' an unimaginable and unknowable support that maintains perceptible qualities, while Hume radicalized empiricism, leading to questioning causality and the notion of self. These conceptions are crucial for understanding the epistemological foundations that support modern science and subsequent philosophy.

Enlightenment

The Enlightenment was an intellectual and philosophical movement that developed in 18th-century Europe, promoting ideals such as the sovereignty of reason, progress, and individual freedom. Philosophers like Voltaire, Rousseau, and Kant sought to apply critical reason to all aspects of life, including religion, politics, and economics. Kant, with his 'sapere aude' ('dare to know'), encouraged intellectual autonomy in the face of authority and tradition. The valorization of science, the critique of superstition, and the development of political systems based on natural rights are legacies of the Enlightenment that endure in contemporary times.

Criticism

Criticism is a philosophical current mainly associated with Immanuel Kant, who sought to overcome the impasse between rationalism and empiricism. Kant proposed that although our knowledge begins with experience, not all knowledge comes from it. For him, space and time are a priori forms of sensibility, and the categories of understanding are necessary conditions for the possibility of experience. This establishes limits to what we can know and points out that not everything that exists can be an object of human knowledge. Thus, Kantian criticism is fundamental for understanding the limits of knowledge and for formulating an ethics based on pure reason.

Existentialism

In Contemporary Philosophy, existentialism emerged as a response to the great turbulences and uncertainties of the 20th century. Philosophers like Sartre, Camus, and Kierkegaard explored the human condition, individual freedom, and the search for meaning in a world where pre-established absolute values are questioned. Sartre's famous maxim, 'existence precedes essence,' suggests that we are born without a defined purpose and are free to create our own essence through choices and actions. Existentialism, therefore, raises fundamental questions about freedom, anguish, and authenticity, influencing various areas of thought and culture.

Deepening the Theme

Delving into Modern and Contemporary Philosophy involves understanding the evolution of human thought and the emergence of new paradigms that question previous certainties. This requires not only knowledge of the arguments and theories of the mentioned thinkers but also a critical look at how these ideas influenced and were shaped by historical, social, and technological contexts. Furthermore, it is important to analyze the dialogue between these philosophical currents and other disciplines, such as psychology, linguistics, and physics, which continuously interact, creating a rich and dynamic field of investigation and reflection.

Key Terms

Rationalism: Philosophical current that privileges reason as the primary source of knowledge. Empiricism: Current that argues that sensory experience is the basis of human knowledge. Enlightenment: Cultural and philosophical movement that promoted reason as the main guide for freedom, knowledge, and human conduct. Criticism: Current associated with Kant that seeks to establish the limits of human knowledge. Existentialism: Philosophical movement that emphasizes individual freedom and responsibility in constructing meaning in an inherently purposeless world.

Practice

Reflection on the Theme

Studying Modern and Contemporary Philosophy reveals more than isolated historical periods; it demonstrates an evolution of thought and principles that guide our current society. Reflecting on these concepts allows us to identify the philosophical roots of many contemporary challenges, such as the tension between personal freedom and social responsibility or the ongoing debate between faith and reason. Question: How do Enlightenment ideas manifest in today's discourses on democracy and human rights? In what areas of contemporary life could Kantian criticism be applied? How does existentialism resonate in modern concepts of identity and choice? These reflections encourage critical understanding and philosophical application to lived reality, instigating the development of autonomous and analytical thinking.

Introductory Exercises

Identify and describe the main arguments of Cartesian rationalism and Lockean empiricism, highlighting their contributions to the development of the scientific method.

Write a brief essay on how Locke's concept of 'tabula rasa' impacted modern psychology and educational conceptions.

Compare and contrast the philosophies of Kant and Hume regarding causality and knowledge, using concrete examples of how these theories could be applied in everyday life.

Discuss the concept of freedom in Sartre and how it can be interpreted in the face of contemporary ethical and social dilemmas.

Create a fictional dialogue between Voltaire and Rousseau addressing the importance of reason and emotion for human conduct.

Projects and Research

Research Project: 'The Lights of the Enlightenment in the 21st Century.' In this project, students will research the application of Enlightenment ideas in contemporary times. They will select an Enlightenment principle, such as freedom of expression or the separation of powers, and investigate how this principle is interpreted and challenged in today's political, social, and technological context. The goal is to produce an article that analyzes recent events or social debates in light of Enlightenment thought, reflecting on its relevance and limitations.

Expanding

Modern and Contemporary Philosophy is not limited to Europe or the West. Expanding the view to a global context allows for exploring how philosophical ideas intertwine with decolonization movements, post-colonial thought, and non-Western philosophies. For example, the influence of rationalism and empiricism can be investigated in the formation of knowledge theories in African, Asian, and Indigenous cultures and philosophies. This enrichment of philosophical study allows for a more comprehensive understanding of the diverse ways of thinking and living, recognizing the plurality of knowledge and experiences that contribute to the fabric of the contemporary world.

Conclusion

Conclusions

The journey through Modern and Contemporary Philosophy offered in this chapter has led us through a series of paradigmatic transformations of human thought that resonate to this day. Rationalism, with its emphasis on reason as the main instrument for acquiring knowledge, challenged entrenched beliefs and traditions, establishing the foundations for modern science and the valorization of independent thinking. Empiricism emphasized the importance of sensory experience, positioning perceptions and observation as essential foundations for understanding the world, shaping scientific and methodological approaches in various fields of knowledge. Both currents, although distinct in their postulates, share the merit of having instigated significant advances in questioning and exploring human capabilities.

The lights of the Enlightenment, revealed in the pages of this chapter, brought to light the power of criticism and the importance of autonomy of thought, deeply influencing the contours of politics, ethics, and society. The notion of freedom, whether of thought, expression, or politics, was catapulted to the center of philosophical discussions and became a fundamental principle in the foundations of modern democracies. When we consider Kantian criticism, with its revolutionary approach to the limits of knowledge and the synthesis between rationalism and empiricism, we are presented with a complex and sophisticated understanding of the mind and reality that challenges simplistic thinking and addresses ethical issues through a universal and rational perspective.

Finally, existentialism brought to the philosophical debate the concerns and depths of the human condition, exploring freedom, anguish, and authenticity in a world often perceived as chaotic and devoid of intrinsic meaning. This philosophical current urges us to confront the inherent responsibilities of choice freedom and to forge personal meanings in the midst of an open and undetermined existence. The reflections and discussions sparked by the study of Modern and Contemporary Philosophy demonstrate its enduring relevance, as these theories and ideas continue to influence current debates on moral, political, and scientific issues, playing a crucial role in shaping critical thinking and understanding the intellectual trajectory of the human being.